U.S. Foreign Policy

US foreign policy has evolved considerably since the country’s founding, shaped by changing geopolitical realities, values, and domestic politics. But some key goals have remained relatively constant - to protect the homeland, promote economic prosperity, and uphold democratic principles abroad.

In the 19th century, foreign policy was focused inward - on westward expansion and avoiding entanglements in European affairs. This isolationism shifted after the Spanish-American war, with the US emerging as a global power. In the 20th century, the US assumed a leadership role in WWI and WWII, then engaged in a global Cold War struggle against communism.

After the Cold War, policymakers debated America’s role in the post-Soviet world. The Clinton administration focused on open markets, democracy promotion, and multilateral engagement. After 9/11, counterterrorism became the top priority under President Bush. More recently, the US has aimed to pivot toward Asia while grappling with crises in the Middle East.

Looking ahead, US foreign policy will continue to balance interests in security, prosperity, and principles. But it will also have to adapt to new challenges - from climate change to pandemics to digital threats. America’s global leadership role remains contested, as the international landscape grows more multipolar.

Power

Power is an essential element of foreign policy. It refers to a nation’s capacity to use its resources to influence or control other states. Power allows a country to protect and advance its national interests on the global stage.

There are several types of power in foreign policy:

• Military power involves a nation’s armed forces, weapons capabilities, and ability to project force globally. Military power remains vital for self-defense and deterring aggression. The United States maintains the world’s largest military budget and most advanced capabilities.
• Economic power stems from a large, innovative economy and influences global trade and investment flows. The U.S. has the world’s largest economy and dollar trade gives it financial power. Economic sanctions are a key foreign policy tool.
• Technological power from inventions and innovations creates advantages in communications, information, aerospace, and other spheres. U.S. technological strength stems from robust research and development.
• Soft power arises from the appeal of a nation’s culture, values, policies and institutions. U.S. entertainment, brands, universities and support for democracy enhance its soft power.

A foreign policy with diverse power resources allows flexibility in how a nation advances its interests. Power underpins the ability to reward partners, deter adversaries and shape the global order.

Self-Defense

A state’s power is critical for the fundamental goal of self-defense and control of its territory. Power capabilities such as a strong military enable a nation to deter or defeat aggressors who may threaten the country’s sovereignty or safety. Power also allows a state to secure its borders and maintain territorial integrity.

Without adequate power, a nation is vulnerable to external threats and unable to prevent violation of its borders or encroachment on its land and resources. The ability to defend one’s territory from invasion or occupation is essential for survival as an independent state.

Power provides the strength and capacity for a country to protect its homeland, citizens, and possessions against potential attacks or seizure by hostile forces. This defensive capacity is vital given an anarchic international system lacking a supreme authority able to protect the sovereignty of states. Self-defense requires powerful military, economic, and diplomatic capabilities to counter dangers from would-be aggressors.

A nation’s power and self-defense abilities also enable it to deter potential adversaries from even contemplating threatening actions. When a state has formidable defense capacities, rivals will think twice before contemplating military action, reducing chances of attack. Power is thus a critical prerequisite for self-defense as well as deterrence of aggressors, upholding sovereignty and territorial integrity.

Prosperity

Principally in economic terms, prosperity focuses on goals related to the American economy:

• Provide reliable and low-cost imports of commodities, raw materials, agricultural produce, and industrial goods that are crucial to the economy. If key imports were cut off or became much more expensive, major sectors of the economy would suffer.
• Obtain growing markets for American exports because exports are major sources of jobs for US workers and profits for US companies. Because the U.S. economy is already so large and self-sufficient, the percentage of GDP that derives from trade outside the United States is not as great as for most other nations; nevertheless, exports have grown rapidly. The search for foreign markets for American goods is central to the prosperity goal.
• Gain access to profitable foreign investments where American capital can obtain a good return. The ability of US firms to invest abroad and the freedom to transfer the economic returns from those investments back home are directly linked to prosperity.
• Assure international economic opportunities and in general facilitate the international flow of goods, services, and capital for the benefit of the American economy. This is the broadest conception of the economic goal. Sometimes it is expressed as maintaining and expanding an “open” world economy that is hospitable to US commerce and in which American needs and desires remain essentially unimpeded by the hindrances that could result from economic nationalism abroad or international upheavals.

Principles

The Principles component of US foreign policy refers to the values, ideals, and beliefs that the United States has claimed to stand for in the world. These principles are rooted in the political values on which America was founded - namely, freedom, democracy, individual rights, and the rule of law. Throughout history, US leaders have invoked these principles to justify America’s role in the world and its relationships with other nations.

Some key principles that have shaped US foreign policy include:

• Promoting democracy and human rights - The US has often argued that spreading democracy globally aligns with its founding values and enhances global stability and peace. This principle has been used to guide policies from the Cold War to the War on Terror.
• Upholding liberal international order - The US was a key architect of institutions like the UN, NATO, and WTO that make up the liberal rules-based international order. The US cites commitment to this order as a reason for global engagement.
• Respect for national sovereignty - While the US promotes democracy globally, it also claims to respect national sovereignty and rejects interference in other nation’s internal affairs. However, it has violated this principle at times.
• Advancing global justice - The US argues its foreign policy aims to advance ideals like human dignity, social justice, and human rights globally. Critics argue this masks self-interest.

While principles set a vision for US foreign policy, realpolitik interests in power and security often dominate decision making. But principles provide an ideological framework for US global leadership. Most administrations have tried balancing principles with other policy goals and interests.

Democratic Idealism

Promoting democracy worldwide has been a central principle of U.S. foreign policy. This commitment to spreading democracy stems from the belief that democratic governments better protect human rights, are more trusting of their neighbors, and are more cooperative and reliable partners for the United States.

The origins of democratic idealism trace back to President Woodrow Wilson, who emphasized “self-determination” for all people and believed the United States had a moral responsibility to promote democracy globally. During the Cold War, the United States framed its opposition to communism and the Soviet Union as a battle between freedom and authoritarianism. Promoting democracy was both a moral cause and a means to contain Soviet expansion.

In recent decades, presidents from both parties have continued to advocate for democracy promotion. President Clinton asserted that “democratic enlargement” would advance security and prosperity. President George W. Bush made democratization a centerpiece of his national security strategy after 9/11, believing that spreading democracy would help defeat militant Islamism. President Obama emphasized engaging with and strengthening civil society. Though approaches have varied, promoting democracy endures as a bipartisan objective.

Critics argue that embracing democratization too zealously can breed resentment and instability. Imposing democracy through regime change or force rarely succeeds. Yet, administrations across ideologies have maintained that, done judiciously, advancing human rights and democratic ideals overseas serves U.S. interests and global peace.

Foreign Policy Process

The foreign policy process in the United States involves various branches of government, interest groups, media outlets, and public opinion. Understanding how these different actors influence foreign policy decisions is key.

The President

The president plays a central role in making and carrying out foreign policy. As commander-in-chief of the armed forces, chief diplomat, and head of state, the president has considerable power and influence over foreign affairs.

However, the president’s ability to pursue their preferred foreign policy is constrained by other factors. Congress can block treaties and must approve declarations of war. The president also relies on federal agencies like the State Department to implement policy.

Congress

The Constitution grants Congress several foreign policy powers, including declaring war, approving treaties and ambassadors, and appropriating funds. In practice, presidents take the lead on most foreign policy matters.

Still, Congress exerts influence through oversight hearings, legislation, and control of the budget. Divided government, when the president’s party does not control Congress, can increase inter-branch tensions over foreign policy.

Interest Groups

Various interest groups try to shape US foreign policy to serve their particular interests. These include ethnic lobbies, human rights organizations, defense contractors, big businesses, and other groups.

Their influence depends on factors like financial resources, grassroots support, access to policymakers, and how much their goals align with the administration’s agenda.

Media

The news media plays an agenda-setting role in foreign policy. Media coverage of international events and issues can pressure policymakers to take certain actions. But the media’s impact is filtered through how policymakers interpret the facts.

Public Opinion

Public opinion provides broad input to policymakers about the nation’s priorities and mood. But most foreign policy issues do not directly affect citizens’ daily lives. As a result, public opinion tends to be general in nature rather than detailed policy prescriptions.

Foreign policymakers balance public opinion with other considerations like national interests and geopolitics when making decisions. But substantial public opposition can constrain policy options.

Executive Branch

The president plays the most significant role in foreign policymaking within the executive branch. While the Constitution specifies that the president has the power to receive ambassadors and, with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties and appoint ambassadors and other ministers and consuls, presidents have long claimed broad powers to act independently, especially in times of crisis.

The president’s formal powers provide substantial capacity to shape U.S. foreign policy, but they are not unlimited. The Constitution grants Congress the sole authority to declare war. The Senate must approve all major international agreements and key executive branch appointments. The appropriations process gives Congress immense influence over foreign policy. Nevertheless, presidents have cited their constitutionally granted executive powers to justify broad unilateral policymaking authority in foreign affairs, especially concerning the use of force abroad.

The president stands at the apex of the foreign policy bureaucracy and has great influence in directing its work. The State Department, led by the secretary of state, is home to the government’s foreign policy experts. It seeks to implement the president’s foreign policy goals through diplomacy. The Department of Defense oversees the nation’s armed forces and is led by the secretary of defense. The intelligence community, including the CIA, provides intelligence information to inform policymaking. Numerous other departments and agencies are involved in foreign affairs and impacted by presidential directives.

While Congress and other actors influence foreign policy, the president sits at the center of the foreign policymaking process. The president’s unique role gives them more power to shape U.S. foreign policy than any other single individual.

Legislative Branch

Congress plays a key role in shaping U.S. foreign policy. The Senate must ratify all treaties by a two-thirds supermajority vote. The Senate also must confirm all major ambassadorial and cabinet appointments that deal with foreign policy matters.

Additionally, Congress holds several foreign policy powers, including:

• The power to regulate international commerce
• The power to declare war
• The power to fund and oversee the military
• Oversight over the intelligence agencies and covert operations
• The Senate’s “advice and consent” role over treaties and appointments

In practice, Congress tends to defer to the President on routine foreign policy matters. However, Congress has asserted its authority at times, such as blocking arms sales or imposing sanctions. When the President and Congress clash over foreign policy, tensions and compromise between the two branches often emerge. As public opinion and partisan control of government shifts, the relative balance of power between the executive and legislative branches continues to evolve.