Tools and Instruments Of Diplomacy

The promotion of trade and investment has long been an important diplomatic tool for economic development. Cultural diplomacy involves sharing cultural values and traditions to strengthen relationships between countries. Public diplomacy goes beyond traditional state-to-state diplomacy to engage foreign publics and non-state actors. Digital technology and social media are transforming diplomatic communications. Economic diplomacy entails using economic assets to increase security and cooperation. International law provides a framework for diplomacy by regulating state actions. The Vienna Conventions codified rules on treaties, diplomatic relations, and consular relations between states. By exploring these diverse facets of diplomacy, this content aims to provide a comprehensive overview of modern diplomatic relations and how they are conducted. The complex challenges of our globalized world require innovative diplomatic solutions across economic, cultural, technological, legal and public spheres.

Trade & Investment

Trade and investment play a vital role in economic development and growth. They allow countries to specialize in producing goods and services where they have a comparative advantage, and exchange these for other goods and services they need to consume and invest. This enables economies to become more productive and achieve greater prosperity.

International trade flows have grown rapidly in recent decades as a result of globalization and reduced trade barriers. Total merchandise exports rose from $6 trillion in 2002 to over $19 trillion in 2018, reflecting an average annual growth rate of 6%. Foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows also grew substantially over this period, from $560 billion to $1.47 trillion.

Developing countries have increased their share of global trade and investment. Their share of global merchandise exports rose from 31% in 2002 to 44% in 2018. Developing economies also received over 50% of global FDI inflows in 2018, up from 30% in 2002. This reflects their deeper integration into the global economy.

Services trade has also grown in importance. Global services exports were valued at $6.1 trillion in 2019, making up over 20% of total trade. Key services exports include transportation, travel and tourism, telecommunications, computer and financial services.

E-commerce has emerged as a new and rapidly growing channel for international trade. According to UNCTAD estimates, global business-to-business e-commerce sales reached $21 trillion in 2017, up from $16 trillion in 2013. Business-to-consumer e-commerce sales hit $3.9 trillion in 2017. Cross-border e-commerce allows businesses in developing countries to reach new export markets more easily.

Looking ahead, services trade and e-commerce are likely to drive further expansion of international trade and investment. However, rising trade tensions and protectionism could pose challenges. Ongoing reforms to strengthen the multilateral trading system will be important to maintain an open, stable and transparent trading environment that supports growth and development.

Cultural Diplomacy

Cultural diplomacy refers to the exchange of ideas, information, values, systems, traditions, beliefs, and other aspects of culture to strengthen relationships, promote interests, and enhance mutual understanding between nations. It is a form of soft power that aims to influence foreign publics and broaden dialogue to forge mutually beneficial relationships.

There are several types of cultural diplomacy:

• Public diplomacy involves a government engaging foreign publics to explain its values, policies and priorities. This could include educational exchanges, radio and TV broadcasts, arts festivals, traveling exhibitions and other programs.
• Citizen diplomacy involves individual citizens interacting and engaging with citizens from other nations to build interpersonal understanding. This includes cultural exchanges, town twinning, and international volunteering, among other activities.
• Corporate diplomacy involves corporations and non-profit organizations cultivating relationships and representing their nation through culture, values and business practices.

The goals and impact of cultural diplomacy include:

• Improving national image and international reputation
• Correcting misconceptions or countering propaganda
• Attracting tourism and foreign direct investment
• Strengthening political and economic ties between nations
• Increasing mutual understanding between cultures
• Preserving national heritage and promoting cultural exchange

Cultural diplomacy played an important role in the ping-pong diplomacy between the U.S. and China in the 1970s, which helped re-open diplomatic relations. Exchanges of artists, musicians, chefs, martial arts masters and other cultural figures have continued to promote strong U.S.-China ties over the past decades. Another example is the British Council’s work to promote English language learning and foster positive views of the UK internationally through cultural programs. Overall, cultural diplomacy provides a “soft power” complement to traditional political and economic ties between nations.

Public Diplomacy

Public diplomacy refers to the efforts by governments, private groups, and individuals to conduct international relations and influence foreign publics. It gained prominence in the mid-20th century as new communications technologies enabled more direct engagement with foreign populations.

Public diplomacy is used as a tool of foreign policy to inform and influence public opinion in other countries. It goes beyond traditional diplomacy’s focus on engaging with governments to directly engage with citizens, civil society groups, media outlets, and other non-state actors. The goal is to advance national interests by cultivating an enabling environment overseas.

Public diplomacy allows nations to bypass traditional gatekeepers and speak directly to foreign publics. It leverages new forms of people-to-people contact enabled by technology and travel. Activities can include educational exchanges, broadcasting, online informational campaigns, cultural diplomacy, and more.

Some challenges and criticisms of public diplomacy include:

• Messaging can seem propagandistic or lack credibility, especially if it contradicts a country’s actions. Publics today are savvy consumers of information.
• It’s difficult to measure effectiveness and impact. Changes in foreign opinions can take years to materialize.
• Domestic politics can undermine public diplomacy, like if domestic debates on foreign policy confuse or contradict messages directed abroad.
• Some authoritarian regimes exploit public diplomacy tools for propaganda purposes while restricting outside voices in their own country.
• Public diplomacy risks being reactive and short-term focused due to 24/7 news cycle and pressure to counter misinformation. Long-term relationship building can get neglected.
• With power diffuse in the information age, public diplomacy has limits in reaching and persuading foreign publics. Tight message control is not possible.

Effective public diplomacy requires close coordination between government agencies, adequate funding and staffing, cultural intelligence, listening skills, a coherent strategy, and an alignment between words and policy actions. It complements traditional diplomacy but involves distinct mindsets and skillsets.

Digital Technology in Diplomacy

In the twenty-first century digital diplomacy is considered as one of the major in diplomatic communication and a new form of new diplomatic communication technologies. Information and communication technology (ICT), the internet and social media have a big impact for strenghthening the diplomatic relations.

In diplomacy, social media has become an important instrument. In social media there is unconditional communication and it has become a communicator’s most powerful tool. Social media and digital diplomacy are the instruments for making direct public interaction and the involvement of non-state actors as a way to maintain legitimacy and develop relationships in a changing world.

Digital diplomacy does not replace traditional diplomacy, but it can be an essential element for realizing foreign policy. During the realization of foreign policy towards small countries experiencing major challenges that limit the implementation of foreign policy. Digital diplomacy supports countries even though smaller countries are more dominant.

Now, small countries have used the internet and technology to their own advantage. In general, small countries must improve the process of realization in external relations optimally. However, in this digital era diplomats are actually required to have an expert role in using digital communication tools, in order to avoid something that can happen. Until now, digital diplomacy users need training in digital technology in gaining knowledge, use and to avoid risks.

Economic Diplomacy

Economic diplomacy is the use of the full spectrum economic tools of a state to achieve its national interests. It involves pursuit of economic foreign policy objectives through engagement with external actors, including states, businesses, citizens, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, and other non-state groups.

Economic diplomacy has three key facets:

• Commercial diplomacy focuses on promoting trade and investment. Commercial diplomats build networks with businesses, promote exports, attract inward investment, and lobby for access to foreign markets. They aim to support domestic job creation and economic growth.

• Structural diplomacy involves utilizing economic assets and relationships to increase economic security and interdependence. This can include negotiating preferential trade agreements, providing aid and assistance, participating in multilateral organizations, and building relationships that raise the costs of conflict. Structural diplomacy aims to create an international environment conducive to a country’s economic objectives.

• International organization diplomacy means consolidating the right political and economic environment within international bodies to facilitate national interests. This involves coalition building, negotiation, compromise, and persuading other states to align with one’s position. Multilateral institutions like the WTO and IMF are key venues for this type of economic diplomacy.

By leveraging these forms of economic diplomacy, states attempt to achieve core foreign policy goals related to trade, development, finance, investment, and global economic governance. Economic priorities shape how states engage internationally across both economic and political domains.

International Law

International law plays an important role in diplomacy and international relations by providing a common set of rules and norms that regulate state behavior. It aims to foster cooperation between states and provide mechanisms for resolving disputes peacefully. However, international law has faced criticisms about its effectiveness and limitations due to the lack of strong enforcement mechanisms.

A key tension in international law is its interplay with state sovereignty. States are reluctant to give up their sovereign rights and submit to external legal constraints. At the same time, international law depends on states to follow the rules voluntarily. This can lead to inconsistencies in compliance.

Some scholars have argued that international law is ineffective because it lacks secondary rules to ensure that states apply and follow the primary rules. Without a strong system of sanctions and enforcement, states can choose whether or not to abide by international law. There are also issues of states having different interpretations of what the rules require.

Additionally, international law is limited because there is no supreme authority like a world government to create and enforce the law. The decentralized nature of the international system gives states power to decide whether to participate in treaties or abide by customary international law. Compliance is often based on reciprocity and reputational concerns rather than obligation.

Critics have contended that international law is therefore subordinate to state sovereignty and lacks true authority over state behavior. States may use international law as a tool to justify their actions rather than constrain their policies. However, defenders note that nation states have willingly chosen to accept limitations on their sovereignty through international agreements, suggesting international law does impact state decision-making.

In summary, while imperfect, international law remains an important instrument in diplomacy and foreign policy. It provides common guidelines for state interaction, mechanisms for dispute settlement, and a shared framework that can influence national governments. The effectiveness and authority of international law rests on its ongoing development through state cooperation and compliance.

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties is an international agreement that regulates treaties between states. It was opened for signature in 1969 and entered into force in January 1980.

Overview, Purpose and Key Provisions

• The Vienna Convention is often referred to as the “treaty on treaties” because it establishes the framework and rules for how treaties should be defined, drafted, adopted, authenticated, interpreted, amended, invalidated, terminated, and generally operated.

• The purpose of the convention is to bring clarity, consistency and order to treaty law by codifying accepted customary international law practices.

• Some key provisions include:

  • Defining what constitutes a treaty and who has the capacity to enter into treaties
  • Outlining the process for adopting, signing, ratifying and entering into force of treaties
  • Establishing rules for observing, applying, amending, invalidating, suspending, and terminating treaties
  • Providing mechanisms for settling disputes
  • Clarifying that invalid, terminated or suspended treaties are void

Binding Status and Limitations

• The Vienna Convention is legally binding on states that have ratified it. However, it has limited scope as it only applies to treaties between states.
• It does not cover agreements involving international organizations or other non-state entities.
• Some key states like the United States have signed but not ratified the convention. However, they still recognize many of its provisions as representing customary international law.

Implications for Diplomacy

• The Vienna Convention has important implications for diplomacy as it standardizes treaty procedures and interpretation, promoting greater legal clarity in international relations.
• It helps stabilize treaty-based relationships between states by establishing a common framework for negotiating, adopting, interpreting and terminating treaties.
• This provides more predictability in inter-state dealings, strengthening rule of law in diplomacy.
• However, its limited scope means other types of international agreements operate in more ambiguous legal territory. Expanding the convention’s applicability could further strengthen rule of law in diplomacy.

Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations

The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations is an international treaty that defines a diplomatic relations framework. This Convention was agreed on 18 April 1961 and went into force on 24 April 1964 where this convention is ratified by 192 states.

Background and Purpose

Since diplomats are highly essential, they require a legal basis for diplomatic immunity, which elaborates the privileges of a diplomatic mission that enables diplomats to perform their function without fear of coercion or harassment by the host country. This is conducted in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. These privileges include immunity from civil and criminal prosecution and exemption from all dues and taxes in the host state.

The first attempt to codify diplomatic immunity into diplomatic law started at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.

Key Articles and Provisions

The treaty has 53 articles that establish key provisions:

• Article 9 states that the host nation can declare a member of the diplomatic staff to be persona non grata within a specified period.
• Article 24 establishes that the archives and documents of a diplomatic mission are inviolable. The receiving country cannot seize or open such documents.
• Article 27 addresses the free communication protection, safety of the diplomatic bag and diplomatic courier.
• Article 37 states that family members of diplomats living in the host country receive the same protections as the diplomats themselves.

Customary International Law Status

Although some countries have not ratified the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, they still recognize parts of the Convention as constituting customary international law that is binding on all nations. For example, the United States recognizes the customary status of parts of the Convention. Additionally, the Supreme Court of India has also recognized the customary status of the Convention.

Vienna Convention on Consular Relations

The Vienna Convention on Consular Relations is an international treaty that defines the framework for consular relations between independent states. This treaty, ratified by 180 nations, provides for diplomatic immunity and was proposed in 1963.

A consul operates outside of the embassy and performs two key functions. The first is to protect the interests of their fellow countrymen in the host nation. The second is to further the commercial and economic relations between the two states.

The convention contains 79 articles with significant provisions including:

• Article 5 outlines 13 functions of a consul such as furthering development of commercial, economic, cultural and scientific relations between the sending and receiving state.
• Article 23 provides that a member of the consular staff may be declared persona non grata.
• Article 36 addresses that consular officers shall be free to communicate with the sending state and have access to them. Foreign nationals who are arrested, detained or pass away must be given notice without delay to their embassy or consulate. Consular officers have the right to visit these individuals.

The purpose of consuls is therefore to promote the interests of their home country and citizens abroad while also developing positive diplomatic and economic relationships with the host nation. Their privileges and immunities facilitate this important role within diplomacy between states.