Diplomacy has played an instrumental role throughout history in facilitating communication and relations between distinct groups, entities, and nations. At its core, diplomacy entails the management of relationships and affairs between different international actors. It involves the use of dialogue, negotiation, compromise, and other non-violent means to resolve disputes, while advancing a country’s interests.

The origins of diplomacy stretch back thousands of years, with evidence of formal diplomatic dealings and exchanges between nations dating back to the earliest civilizations. From the ancient Near East to the Greek and Italian city-states, methods and approaches to diplomacy have evolved over time to adapt to changing political landscapes. Key developments include the establishment of permanent embassies and foreign ministries, the emergence of diplomatic immunity, and the codification of diplomatic rules and procedures.

While diplomacy has at times failed to prevent war and conflict, it remains an essential tool for furthering cooperation and pursuing foreign policy aims without resorting to violence. When conducted effectively and ethically, diplomacy provides the basis for compromise, mutual understanding, and the peaceful resolution of differences. A review of the history of diplomacy highlights not only how the practice has changed over time, but also its enduring importance for navigating complex international relations.

The History of Diplomacy

Great Kings in Near East 2-4 BCE

In the era of the Great Kings in the Near East from around 2-4 BCE, diplomacy relied heavily on messengers and merchant caravans to deliver messages between rulers. Since communication was slow, unpredictable, and insecure, diplomacy rarely happened.

Messengers on foot or horseback carried correspondence between rulers, but could take weeks or months to reach their destination, with no guarantee they would arrive safely. Merchant caravans provided a slightly more reliable means of transporting letters and envoys, as they followed established trade routes. But their scheduled journeys still meant lengthy delays sending and receiving diplomatic communications.

Without quick and dependable postal systems, diplomacy between distant kings faced major challenges. Negotiations took place at a glacial pace, with long lapses waiting for responses. There was little opportunity for dynamic back-and-forth dialogue to resolve disputes or forge alliances. The difficulty of direct ruler-to-ruler contact constrained diplomatic efforts during this era in the Near East.

Greek City State 4-5th BCE

Diplomacy started to develop between the independent Greek city-states in the 4th and 5th centuries BCE. Each city-state would appoint a respected citizen known as a “proxenos” to represent their interests and negotiate on their behalf when dealing with another city-state. The proxenos enjoyed diplomatic immunity, meaning that they could not be harmed or imprisoned while carrying out their diplomatic duties. This was an early precedent for the idea of diplomatic immunity.

The proxenos was usually a citizen of the host city-state, rather than the one they represented. This way they had the connections and understanding of local laws, customs and key figures needed to conduct diplomacy effectively. While not professional diplomats, they were knowledgeable and trusted by the city-state that appointed them.

The Greek city-states frequently ran into conflicts and disputes over trade, borders, and other issues. Having designated proxenoi allowed them to negotiate, make agreements, and avoid unnecessary wars. It was the start of diplomacy as a continuous process for managing relations between independent political entities. This system was limited because communication remained slow and the proxenoi did not maintain permanent diplomatic missions. But it was an important early development toward professional diplomacy as we know it today.

Byzantium (Eastern Roman Empire)

Diplomacy in the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as Byzantium, developed in a few key ways.

Envoy positions were limited in both time and task. A Byzantine diplomat would be appointed only for a specific negotiation or purpose, not as a permanent representative. Their role ended when the task was completed.

This allowed Byzantium to tailor its diplomatic corps to the situation at hand. They could dispatch exactly the right negotiator for a given scenario.

Byzantine diplomacy also saw stricter standards of honesty emerge. As envoys operated on fixed mandates from the emperor, there was little room for deception. Negotiations had to align with the emperor’s directives.

This focus on honesty was crucial in the Byzantine court. The emperor often had spies to verify an envoy’s account of meetings. Without truthfulness, an envoy risked punishment or exile.

So Byzantium relied on temporary diplomats focused narrowly on the job at hand. And it developed an early form of diplomatic ethics stressing truth and candor above all.

Italian City States 15th AD

In the 15th century, diplomacy became a true profession as the Italian city-states began appointing permanent ambassadors. The most notable of these ambassadors were:

• Dante Alighieri, author of the Divine Comedy, who was sent on a number of diplomatic missions for the city of Florence.
• Francesco Petrarca, known as Petrarch, served as ambassador to the papal court in Avignon.
• Giovanni Boccaccio, author of the Decameron, worked on diplomatic missions and carried out espionage work.
• Niccolò Machiavelli wrote extensively on diplomacy in his famous work The Prince. He served as Secretary of the Second Chancery of the Signoria of Florence from 1498-1512.

The establishment of permanent embassies was a major development, creating continuous diplomatic relationships instead of ad hoc missions. The Italian states shared linguistic and cultural similarities that enabled open communication. Ambassadors were typically appointed from the educated elite who were familiar with Latin and could converse easily. The small distances between city-states also facilitated more frequent contact and correspondence between envoys.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

The administration of foreign relations initially did not have a special department devoted to it. Foreign relations were managed on an ad hoc basis. However, as resident missions abroad and the need for continuous negotiation grew, countries saw the need to establish a permanent institution devoted to foreign affairs.

The first foreign ministry was established in France in 1589 under Henry III, although it was initially just represented by a single person rather than a full office or department. This early foreign ministry was later handed over to Cardinal Richelieu in 1626, who began to develop it into a more robust institution.

It was not until the 18th century under Louis XIV that foreign ministries became more institutionalized in European nations. Britain established its Foreign Office in 1782, while the United States founded the Department of State in 1789. Asian nations later followed suit.

In the 19th century, foreign ministries were generally small departments, divided either by geographical regions or by function. They were headed by a permanent senior official. Foreign ministries often found themselves competing for influence over foreign policy with other power centers like prime ministers, presidents, and monarchs.

There was also a perception gap between foreign ministries and their diplomats working abroad. The diplomats tended to see themselves as the true representatives of the nation’s foreign policy, while foreign ministries focused more on administrative functions.

Today, the main functions of foreign ministries include:

• Providing personnel for missions abroad
• Supporting diplomats and their families
• Providing the physical infrastructure for missions abroad
• Monitoring and evaluating the performance of missions

Foreign ministries are typically divided into geographical departments, functional departments, and special departments for handling crises. Examples include the State Department’s Operations Center in the U.S. or Israel’s Situation Room.

Diplomacy: Modern Era

Favorable Conditions for the Development of Diplomacy

In the modern era, several factors created favorable conditions for the development of diplomacy:

• The rich but poorly defended Italian city-states experienced hyper-insecurity, which made diplomacy essential for their survival. Diplomacy helped them secure alliances and reduce threats from more powerful states.
• There were fewer barriers of language and religion between the Italian states compared to elsewhere in Europe. This enabled easier communication and negotiations between diplomats.
• The Italian city-states were located relatively close together geographically. This allowed more frequent contact and exchanges between diplomats compared to diplomacy over longer distances.

Diplomats

In the modern era, responsibility for diplomacy rested primarily with two types of envoys:

• Nuncios were temporary envoys sent for specific, narrowly focused negotiations or tasks. They were appointed ad-hoc, as needed.
• Plenipotentiaries were diplomats granted full powers to represent and negotiate on behalf of their state. They had authority to bind their home state to agreements.

These envoys contrasted with the permanent resident ambassadors that would emerge later.

Characteristics of Diplomacy

Some key characteristics defined diplomacy in the modern era:

• Dependence on messengers and merchant caravans for communication, which was slow and insecure.
• Reliance on diplomatic immunity to enable envoys to travel and operate safely.
• Dependence on observance of treaties by all parties to enable ongoing relations.

Diplomatic role from time to time

• 15th century
  • Diplomacy became a true profession
  • Italian States began to appoint permanent ambassadors
  • Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Machiavelli
• 1600
  • Cardinal Richelieu (1600) - advances in diplomatic theory and practice
  • Political Testament - diplomacy shoulc be a continuous process aimed at creating durable relationships rather than attempting to make opportunistic advances
• Before 18th century
  • the language of diplomacy: Latin
  • Treaty of Westphalia, the Anglo-Danish Treaty, and Anglo Dutch Treaty
• 18th century
  • French had become the de facto language of diplomacy
  • All proceedings at the Congress of Vienna and the Congress of Paris
• 1815
  • Congress of Vienna
  • Diplomatic service was recognized as a profession
  • Rules and protocols of modern diplomacy

Diplomatic Ethics

Diplomacy involves following certain ethics and norms to allow diplomats to effectively carry out their functions. Two key diplomatic ethics that emerged were the system of diplomatic rank and immunity.

The Congress of Vienna in 1815 established an international system of diplomatic rank. This rank system allowed for the appropriate diplomatic representation in negotiations and disputes. Higher ranked diplomats would be sent for more significant negotiations.

Diplomatic immunity also became an important ethical concept. The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations in 1964 established that diplomats must have special privileges and immunities under local criminal and civil law. This immunity enables diplomats to carry out their functions and duties without interference or coercion from the host country.

The rank system and immunity uphold diplomatic ethics by facilitating diplomacy between countries. By protecting the ability of diplomats to conduct their duties, these norms aim to encourage open communication and mediation of conflicts. Adhering to diplomatic ethics has been crucial in the history of diplomacy.