Politics Of Multiculturalism

Samuel P. Huntington (1927 – 2008) was an influential American political scientist best known for his “clash of civilizations” theory outlined in his 1993 Foreign Affairs article and 1996 book of the same name. Huntington argued that in the post-Cold War world, violent conflicts would increasingly emerge along cultural and religious lines rather than ideological or economic divisions.

Specifically, Huntington asserted that nation states were fragmenting and people were regrouping around primordial identities based on culture, religion, language, and tradition. He identified 7-8 major civilizations in the modern world: Western, Latin American, African, Islamic, Sinic (Chinese), Hindu, Orthodox (Russian), and possibly Buddhist. According to Huntington, clashes would occur along the cultural fault lines between these civilizations as each fights to protect or expand its core values and interests.

Huntington’s thesis generated significant debate and controversy when first published. Critics argued his categories were too simplistic and ignored the dynamic nature of culture and internal differences within civilizations. They also feared his theory could become a self-fulfilling prophecy. However, the 9/11 terrorist attacks and subsequent “war on terror” rekindled interest in Huntington’s ideas. Whether accurate or not, the “clash of civilizations” framework continues to profoundly shape discussions of global politics and relations between the Western and Islamic worlds.

Samuel Huntington’s Main Theses

In his 1996 book “The Clash of Civilizations”, American political scientist Samuel Huntington put forth several theses regarding culture and global politics in the post-Cold War era.

Huntington argued that with the end of the Cold War, global politics has become increasingly defined by cultural differences rather than ideological or economic factors. He posited that humanity could be grouped into 7 or 8 major “civilizations” based on cultural affiliations, such as Western, Islamic, Hindu and Sinic (Chinese) civilizations.

According to Huntington, conflicts in the post-Cold War world will occur along the cultural fault lines between these civilizations as sources of identity and division among humankind. He wrote that the most important distinctions between peoples in the modern world are not political or economic, but cultural.

Huntington believed the efforts of countries in the West to promote Western values of democracy, capitalism, secularism, human rights, individualism, etc. in other civilizations will be seen as imperialism and generate conflict. He was skeptical of the emergence of any universal civilization and pinned the potential for global conflict on clashes between civilizations promoting their own values and interests.

The book proved controversial, with many critiquing Huntington’s categories and assumptions about conflict originating from cultural rather than political differences. Nonetheless, it spurred significant debate about culture, identity and interactions between civilizations in the post-Cold War era.

Issues Arising from Diversity

Diversity can lead to many social problems and tensions between different groups within a society. Increased immigration and the mingling of different cultures creates frictions and hostilities in several relationships:

• Between the indigenous population and immigrants or minorities. The native population can feel their cultural values are under threat from foreign influences. They may resent competition for jobs, housing and social services. Racism and xenophobia can emerge.
• Between minorities and the indigenous population. Minority groups may feel marginalized, discriminated against, or excluded from full participation in society. This can breed resentment and alienation.
• Among various immigrant groups. Tensions can flare between immigrant groups with different cultural backgrounds, values, or economic status. Competition for resources and power struggles can lead to conflict.

Cultural relativism also becomes an issue. How should we treat cultures that differ radically from our own? What if their practices violate principles we consider fundamental? Multicultural societies grapple with reconciling diversity with shared values and social cohesion.

Managing diversity constructively is a major challenge for multicultural societies. If social tensions and problems are not addressed effectively, it can lead to greater conflict, social instability, and a weakening of democracy and social solidarity. The “failure” of multiculturalism that Huntington refers to relates to these unresolved tensions.

Defining Multiculturalism

The most widely accepted definition is usually negative: in this sense multiculturalism means diversity as opposed to sameness, difference as opposed to unity. It is a cultural and political platform for various principles, concepts and guidelines, with the aim of promoting the fair and equal appearance of all cultural groups in public and private institutional environments and of creating a balance between races or languages.

Multiculturalism provides a political framework for social equality and cultural differences as substantial elements of social order. It offers strategic guiding principles to rethink, redefine and resolve racial and ethnic differences. Multiculturalism considers all ethnic and cultural groups equal, and claims that every individual has the right to associate and identify with the culture of their choice, while still fully benefiting from the opportunities of economic and social equality. No cultural entity has the right to be privileged over another - since they enrich society, all should be respected and supported. However, its boundaries with globalism or liberalism are often blurred. Multiculturalism can be seen as the democratic “citizenization”, turning earlier hierarchical relations into those of liberal-democratic citizenship. This entails transforming both the vertical relationships between minorities and the state, and the horizontal relationships among members of different groups.

Aspects of Multiculturalism

There are several key aspects of multiculturalism:

• Subject – who or what is the subject of multiculturalism (people, culture).
• View – how people and cultures are viewed (respect, appreciation).
• Expression – how difference is expressed (working together, harmony).
• Location – place or context (country, community).

Views on Culture in Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism aims to view all cultures equally and respectfully. Some key principles in how multiculturalism approaches culture include:

• All cultures have intrinsic value and should be respected. No culture is inherently superior or inferior to another.
• While cultures have differences, these differences should not be ranked or judged. Difference itself does not imply defect.
• Cultures change and adapt over time through interaction with each other. The emphasis should be on exchange and dialogue between cultures, not sealing them off.
• Individuals have the freedom to choose their cultural affiliations and identities. No single identity or culture should be imposed.
• Minority or non-dominant cultures should not be forced to assimilate into the majority culture. Their cultural rights and practices should be protected.
• Cultural biases and stereotypes should be challenged. Individuals should not be prejudged based on cultural background.
• A balance should be struck between respecting a culture’s traditions and principles of universal human rights. Practices that infringe on human rights should be addressed.
• Public institutions should aim to represent and include diverse cultural perspectives and practices, not just the majority viewpoint.

So in summary, multiculturalism advocates viewing all cultures positively while also allowing dialogue, exchange, and critique. The end goal is equitable representation and respect.

Implementation and Success Factors

What makes for a successful implementation of multiculturalism in a society? Research has shown that several key factors can facilitate or impede the adoption of multicultural ideals.

Desecuritization of Ethnic Relations

When ethnic minorities are seen primarily through a security lens, it becomes difficult to embrace diversity. Multiculturalism has a greater chance to thrive when minorities are considered an issue of social policy rather than state security.

Human Rights Protections

The presence of robust human rights protections in law and practice enables all groups, including minorities, to feel recognized and valued. This provides a stronger foundation for equality and inclusion.

Effective Border Control

The rate and volume of immigration can influence social cohesion and attitudes toward diversity. When borders are orderly and legal immigration is properly regulated, it allows for more measured assimilation and acculturation of minority groups.

Diversity of Immigrant Groups

When immigrants come from a wide array of countries and cultures, no single minority group dominates the discourse. This diversity of backgrounds facilitates multiculturalism instead of heightened tensions between two main groups.

Economic Contributions

When immigrants are economically productive and able to positively contribute through entrepreneurship, labor, and job creation, the host society is more inclined to welcome diversity. Multiculturalism struggles if minorities are perceived as an economic drain.

Multiculturalism Policies

Countries have implemented various policies aimed at supporting multiculturalism. Some common examples include:

• Constitutional, legislative, or parliamentary affirmation of multiculturalism, at the central and/or regional and municipal levels. This formally recognizes the multicultural nature of the society.
• Adoption of multiculturalism in school curricula. This aims to teach students about diversity and promote cross-cultural understanding from a young age.
• Mandating ethnic representation/sensitivity in public media or media licensing requirements. This ensures minority groups have a voice in media.
• Allowing exemptions from dress codes either by statute or court rulings, to accommodate cultural/religious attire.
• Allowing dual citizenship, so immigrants don’t have to renounce their original citizenship.
• Funding ethnic group organizations to support cultural activities and communities.
• Funding bilingual education or mother-tongue instruction in schools.
• Affirmative action policies to assist disadvantaged immigrant groups. These may help with education, employment, housing, etc.
• The funding of ethnic group organizations to support cultural activities
• The funding of bilingual education or mother-tongue instruction
• Affirmative action for disadvantaged immigrant groups

Criticisms of Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism has faced opposition for various reasons. Some key criticisms include:

• Xenophobia - Opposition can be motivated by xenophobia or fear of other cultures. Anti-immigration movements often criticize multiculturalism.
• Misrepresentation - Some argue that multiculturalism has been misrepresented and used to justify simplistic migration policies.
• Differentialism - Critics argue multiculturalism promotes differentialism, or static, unchanging cultural identities, rather than hybridity and cultural mixing.
• Disunity - Critics claim multiculturalism divides society by emphasizing differences between groups rather than shared values and identity.
• Relativism - Some argue multiculturalism promotes dangerous moral and cultural relativism by treating all cultural values as equally valid.
• Failed policies - Opponents claim multicultural policies have failed to positively impact minority groups or reduce inequality in many cases.
• Elitism - Critics argue multiculturalism represents an elitist ideology imposed from above without public consent.
• Balkanization - Some argue celebrating differences leads to greater social segmentation, hostility between groups, and erodes common ground.

The key reasons multiculturalism faces criticism relate to concerns about social cohesion, moral relativism, policy effectiveness, and ideological misuse. However, supporters argue these critiques often mischaracterize the goals of multiculturalism.

Multiculturalism or Hybridization?

Two competing paradigms emerge in discussions of multiculturalism: differentialism and hybridism.

Differentialism refers to the view of identity as fixed and unchanging. Each cultural group has clearly defined boundaries and members identify wholly with that single culture. There is no intermixing or “flux.” Differentialism aligns with a separatist multicultural ideology that aims to preserve distinct cultures.

Hybridism, on the other hand, refers to the continuous intermixing and blending of cultures. Proponents of hybridism argue that culture is constantly evolving through exchange with other groups. Individual identities are fluid, drawing from multiple cultural influences.

Critics argue differentialism can promote divisions between cultural groups and encourage closed off “solitarist” mentalities. Meanwhile, hybridism is accused of lacking respect for traditional cultural identities and bounded norms.

Debates continue over whether multiculturalism should promote fixed group identities or embrace hybridity and cultural flux. Both differentialist and hybridist positions have shortcomings. The differentialist view risks cultural rigidity and intergroup tensions. The hybridist stance threatens loss of community belonging and cultural dissolution. In practice, multicultural societies likely require a balance between respect for traditional identity and openness to organic cultural evolution.