The History And Evolution Of Foreign Policy Analysis

Definition of Development Countries

The World Economic Situation and Prospects (WESP) report classifies all countries of the world into one of three categories: developed economies, the subgroup of “major developed economies”, which is based on the membership of the Group of Seven economies in transition and developing economies.

Geographical regions for developing economies are as follows: Africa, East Asia, South Asia, Western Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean.

A development country can be defined as a country with a relatively high level of economic growth and security. The main criteria used to evaluate development status include:

• Per capita income or gross domestic product (GDP)
• Level of industrialization
• General standard of living and amount of widespread infrastructure
• Human Development Index (HDI) which reflects relative degrees of education, literacy and health

Features of a Developed Country

A developed country is characterized by certain key features across economic, political, social, health, education, equity, corruption, and environmental factors.

Economic Development

Economically, a developed country has a high level of gross domestic product, high income per capita, and a significant degree of industrialization. The economy is oriented around providing services and value-added industry rather than agriculture and raw material extraction. There is substantial infrastructure to support economic activity.

Industrialization and Foreign Trade

A developed country has a strong manufacturing sector and engages significantly in international trade. Goods are manufactured domestically and exported.

Political Stability

Politically, a developed country has stable governance, often democratic, with strong institutions. There is an effective system of law and respect for regulations. The level of corruption is low. Citizens are able to participate in the political process.

Health and Education

The populations of developed countries have high levels of education, literacy, and advanced healthcare systems. People live long lives with good access to medical treatment. Education is widespread with high enrollment rates.

Social Equity

Developed countries have relatively high degrees of social and gender equality. Poverty rates are lower. There is a strong social safety net.

Low Corruption

Developed countries have low levels of corruption in government, business, and society. The rule of law prevails.

Clean Environment

Developed countries utilize regulations, incentives, and technology to maintain high environmental standards and mitigate pollution. There is substantial focus on clean energy and sustainability.

Overview of Foreign Policy Analysis

Foreign Policy Analysis (FPA) emerged as a subfield of International Relations in the late 1980s, with a focus on developing middle range theories to explain foreign policy decision making. Prior to this, the IR research community had concentrated on the major paradigms of Realism, Liberalism, and Constructivism.

FPA aims to understand the actual conduct and practice of foreign policy, concentrating more on state agency rather than broad structural factors. It examines how and why states make the foreign policy decisions they do, considering the role of factors like domestic politics, individual leaders, and bureaucratic politics.

Some key developments in the field include:

• In 1988, the International Studies Association established an FPA section. This helped to cement FPA as a recognized subfield within IR.
• In 1991, the journal Foreign Policy Analysis was launched, providing a dedicated platform for FPA research.
• Research has expanded from a focus on the US and USSR during the Cold War era to incorporate more comparative analysis across different states and time periods. New theoretical approaches have also emerged.
• Scholars have worked to integrate insights from psychology, cognitive science, and decision-making theory to better understand the individual level.

So while structural theories still dominate IR, FPA has carved out an important niche examining the microfoundations of foreign policy and state behavior.

Defining Foreign Policy

Foreign policies are the strategies governments use to guide their actions in the international arena. Foreign policy often are studied by focusing on a single country (e.g., a decision on the use of force by a U.S. president) or across nations (e.g., comparing environmental decisions by leaders of US, UK, Germany, France, and Italy) or across time (e.g., comparing decisions of U.S. presidents in the first and second Iraq wars).

Foreign policy analysis is the study of the conduct and practice of relations between different actors, primarily states, in the international system. International relations aims to interpret broad features of international system (‘structure’); foreign policy analysis concentrates on actual state conduct and the sources of decisions (‘agency’).

Relevance of Foreign Policy

Foreign policy refers to the official external relations conducted by an independent actor, usually a state, in international relations. It encompasses what they choose to do in the international arena.

Foreign policy may be approached in many different ways within the field of International Relations:

• Through the lens of international history - studying the impact of foreign policy decisions throughout history.
• Via country studies - analyzing the foreign policy of a specific nation in detail.
• By examining foreign policy theories - using conceptual models to understand and explain foreign policy behaviors.
• As a comparative study - contrasting the foreign policies of different states and governments.
• From an international organization perspective - looking at how IOs shape and influence foreign policy.
• Using levels of analysis - evaluating foreign policy at the individual, domestic, or international system levels.
• Through interdisciplinary approaches - incorporating insights from political science, economics, psychology and other fields.

Theoretical Approaches in FPA

Foreign policy analysis is fundamentally interested in the actual conduct and practices of states in their external relations, as opposed to broader structural theories of the international system. It concentrates on the sources of foreign policy decisions as expressions of state agency.

The theoretical approach to foreign policy making encompasses various schools of thought, each with its own perspective on the factors influencing foreign policy decisions. Some of the main theoretical approaches include:

1. Realism: This school of thought emphasizes the importance of national interests and power in shaping foreign policy. It focuses on the interactions between states and the international system, rather than on domestic factors.
2. Liberalism: Liberal theorists argue that foreign policy is deeply embedded in the domestic situation of a country, with state preferences defined by various individuals and organized groups representing different interests.
3. Neoliberalism: This approach combines elements of realism and liberalism, focusing on both systemic and economic determinants of foreign policy. It highlights the blurring of distinction between foreign and domestic policy due to processes of economic integration, codification of international rules, globalization, and technological development.
4. Constructivism: Constructivists emphasize the importance of ideational factors, such as history, culture, norms, and values, in shaping foreign policy. They argue that these factors lead to the creation of intersubjective identities that define mutual perceptions between nations.
5. Neoclassical Realism: This approach combines elements of classical realism and neorealism, focusing on both systemic incentives and unit-level intervening variables that distort the realization of national interests. It acknowledges the importance of domestic factors in shaping foreign policy decisions.

In addition to these theoretical approaches, the study of foreign policy making in Japan as a contentious process highlights the role of domestic-level factors, such as elite cohesion, social cohesion, and the influence of the prime minister and ruling parties. It also examines the impact of central government reforms on the balance of power in foreign policy making.

Changing International Context

The international context in which foreign policy occurs has undergone major changes in recent decades. Three key elements represent this transformation:

• End of the Cold War - The Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States dominated international relations for over four decades after World War II. This global ideological struggle shaped foreign policies worldwide. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 ended the Cold War era, removing the bipolar constraints on international relations and enabling increased economic and political cooperation.
• Globalization - Improved communications, transportation, and trade have interconnected the world economy. This process of globalization has created complex interdependence between states. Foreign policies now consider economic interests and non-state actors to a greater degree. Globalization has also enabled the rapid spread of information, ideas, and norms across borders.
• Humanitarian Intervention - Since the 1990s, the international community has increasingly accepted the principle of humanitarian intervention to prevent human rights abuses. Foreign policies now consider justifications for military action on humanitarian grounds even within sovereign states. This marks a shift away from absolute state sovereignty. However, controversy remains over when intervention is appropriate.

Economic Factors

A country’s level of economic development is a key factor in determining its status as developed or developing. Economic indicators like GDP per capita, industrialization, infrastructure, and participation in international trade are important metrics.

Developed countries tend to have diversified, industrialized economies and high GDP per capita. They have modern infrastructure and robust international trade. Developing countries often rely more on agriculture and resource extraction. They have lower GDP per capita and less advanced infrastructure.

Industrialization brings job creation, rising incomes, and improved standards of living. Manufacturing and services become larger shares of the economy compared to primary sectors like farming. Developed countries have undergone industrialization and most employment is in services and high-tech industries rather than agriculture.

Trade liberalization can accelerate growth and development. Developed countries actively participate in international trade and make up the majority of global exports and imports. Developing countries often face trade barriers that hinder export opportunities. Expanding trade access creates economic growth opportunities.

In summary, developed nations have thriving industrial and service economies, high GDP per capita, advanced infrastructure, and established international trade ties. Developing countries are working to build their economies through industrialization, infrastructure improvement, and participation in global trade. Strong economic foundations are a prerequisite for developed country status.

Political Factors

A key political factor that shapes foreign policy in developed countries is political stability. Global governance indicators measure dimensions such as rule of law, transparency, and quality of public and civil services. Countries with higher levels of political stability tend to have more effective and consistent foreign policies.

For example, the governments of Norway, Switzerland, Canada, and other developed countries with robust democracies are able to implement long-term foreign policy agendas. Their foreign policies evolve gradually over time rather than changing drastically with each election. These governments can make international commitments that span multiple administrations.

In contrast, countries with high political instability and weak rule of law often have inconsistent foreign policies that shift dramatically whenever a new regime comes into power. Their foreign policy may be subordinated to domestic power struggles and lack coherent strategic vision. Weak political institutions undermine their credibility and reliability on the world stage.

Therefore, political stability and quality of governance are key enablers of a strong and effective foreign policy in developed countries. Robust democracies with effective checks and balances are better able to pursue long-term foreign policy goals rooted in national consensus rather than short-term objectives driven by specific leaders or factions.

Social Factors

Level of development is also correlated with indicators of social wellbeing such as gender equality, poverty rates, and access to education and healthcare. More developed countries tend to have greater gender equality as measured by access to education and political participation for women. They also have lower rates of extreme poverty with stronger social safety nets to support vulnerable populations. Access to education, measured in school enrollment and literacy rates, tends to be higher as well. This is tied to better health outcomes, as developed countries have lower maternal and infant mortality rates along with higher life expectancies. Investing in human capital through healthcare and education has a significant impact on development.

Some key social factors that are associated with a high level of development include:

• Higher education levels and literacy rates
• Improved access to healthcare and lower mortality rates
• More equitable income distribution and lower poverty rates
• Greater gender equality in education, economic participation, and political representation
• Better protections for minorities and vulnerable groups
• Higher levels of overall social progress as measured by indexes like the Social Progress Index

Improving these social indicators helps create an environment that supports economic growth and improves quality of life. Therefore, investments in healthcare, education, poverty alleviation and social inclusion are important elements in the development process. This underscores the multidimensional nature of development that goes beyond just economic factors.