The End of the Cold War

Introduction

The Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union lasted over four decades, from the end of World War II until the collapse of the USSR in 1991. This period of geopolitical tension did not culminate in direct military confrontation between the two superpowers, but rather imposed enormous costs exceeding $11 trillion in building up military arsenals and fighting proxy wars.

Surprisingly, despite the accumulation of enough nuclear weapons to destroy civilization many times over, not a single NATO tank fired a shot at the Kremlin, nor did a bomb drop directly on Moscow. The Cold War paradoxically ended not through force, but rather through a peaceful people’s revolution against the stagnant and oppressive communist system from within the Soviet Union and its satellite states. This largely bloodless uprising was led by workers, dissident intellectuals, advocates of self-determination, and reformers aiming to transform the totalitarian Soviet system.

Life in the USSR

By the 1980s, life for the average Soviet citizen was characterized by economic struggles and poverty. A significant portion of the population lived below the poverty line, with rationing of basic goods like food, clothing and household items being commonplace. The Soviet economy focused heavily on defense spending and military buildup, often at the expense of consumer goods and quality of life improvements for its citizens.

Long lines and shortages for daily necessities were not uncommon, with limits placed on how much individuals could purchase. Access to luxury goods was extremely limited. Housing conditions were often cramped and of low quality. Healthcare, education and other public services deteriorated from earlier decades. Jobs provided little fulfillment or prospects for advancement. The contrast between the promises of communist rhetoric and the harsh reality of daily life led to disillusionment for many Soviets.

US Military Buildup Under Reagan

The United States, under President Reagan’s leadership, invested heavily in military buildup during the 1980s Cold War period in contrast to the economic struggles and focus on defense over consumer goods in the Soviet Union.

President Reagan advocated for a dramatic increase in defense spending and measures to confront the Soviet Union more aggressively on the global stage. This included both overt and covert operations aimed at undermining Soviet power and rolling back communist influence around the world.

Reagan oversaw the largest peacetime defense buildup in U.S. history. Between 1981 and 1985, the Reagan administration increased the defense budget from $171 billion to $282 billion. This represented an increase from 5.2% to 6.5% of the nation’s gross domestic product. Reagan argued that the boosted spending was needed to close the “window of vulnerability” as the Soviet Union continued to strengthen its own military capabilities.

The increased military spending went towards new weapons systems, military hardware and technology. This included expanding the U.S. nuclear arsenal, missile defense systems, conventional forces, and intelligence capabilities. Major spending went towards programs like the B-1 bomber, the MX missile, and the Strategic Defense Initiative (also known as “Star Wars”) aimed at missile defense.

Reagan’s military buildup was part of an assertive policy aimed at pressuring the Soviet Union through strength. This aggressive posture, coupled with economic problems, contributed to the eventual Soviet collapse. However, the massive spending also led to budget deficits that continued after the end of the Cold War.

Causes of Soviet Collapse

The Soviet Union collapsed due to a combination of long-standing structural issues and immediate catalysts that created pressures the regime could not contain.

Several underlying causes created the conditions for the collapse:

• Stagnant economy - The Soviet economy suffered from lack of innovation and an over-emphasis on heavy industry and defense. There was little production of consumer goods, shortages were common, and a significant portion of the population lived in poverty despite guaranteed employment. Central planning was inefficient compared to market economies.

• Failed reform attempts - Prior Soviet leaders attempted reforms to restructure the economy and political system, but these either failed or were reversed. The economy remained overly centralized and burdened by bureaucracy.

• Afghanistan War - The costly and unwinnable war in Afghanistan drained Soviet resources and morale. It demonstrated the limits of Soviet military power.

• Discontent - The Soviet public, especially the younger generation, grew increasingly disillusioned with the political system and lack of freedoms and economic prospects. There was a sense the system was unsustainable.

In the 1980s, these foundational cracks in the Soviet system converged with new pressures, including a renewed arms race with the U.S. under Reagan, the Chernobyl nuclear disaster, and nationalist movements in Soviet republics. This created the impetus for dramatic reforms under Gorbachev, but the system proved too fragile to survive the rapid changes.

Gorbachev’s Reform Policies

Gorbachev’s rise to power in 1985 marked a recognition that major reforms were needed for the Soviet Union’s survival. He initiated new domestic policies of glasnost, meaning “openness”, and perestroika, meaning “restructuring”, aimed at increasing political openness and economic reform.

Glasnost relaxed restrictions on free speech, allowing open criticism of the government and examination of sensitive issues. This new openness gave voice to previously suppressed opinions and grievances, enabling public discussion of social problems.

Perestroika focused on economic restructuring, aiming to modernize Soviet industry and make the economy more efficient. Measures included allowing private businesses and cooperatives, decentralizing economic decision-making, and permitting foreign investment. The goal was to inject more free market principles into the centralized command economy.

Initially, Gorbachev hoped these reforms would revitalize the Soviet system. However, glasnost and perestroika set in motion forces that ultimately led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union. By allowing greater freedom and liberalization, Gorbachev unleashed expectations and demands for change that outpaced the gradual reforms. The system could not contain the forces that had been released.

Gradual Reforms Fail to Meet Public Demands

Gorbachev’s policies of glasnost and perestroika aimed to bring openness and economic restructuring to the Soviet Union. However, the gradual pace of implementing these reforms failed to satisfy the Soviet people’s demands for faster change.

Calls for bolder reforms escalated as Gorbachev’s incremental approach was unable to keep up with public sentiment. The reforms were simply not extensive or rapid enough to meet the expectations of citizens who had grown deeply discontented with the status quo.

While glasnost increased openness and transparency, the accompanying economic reforms were not implemented quickly or deeply enough to improve most people’s lives. As a result, the populace increasingly agitated for swifter and more sweeping reforms to the political and economic system.

The gradual lifting of censorship under glasnost enabled more dissent and discussion of the need for dramatic reforms. But the lack of substantive economic and political changes led to further unrest and demands for truly transformational reforms.

In essence, Gorbachev’s well-intentioned but cautious attempts at reform were overtaken by the momentum and expectations unleashed by glasnost. The growing calls for bolder, faster reforms were a consequence of his own policies, but ultimately outpaced his capacity or willingness to fundamentally reinvent the Soviet system.

Eastern European Independence

The release from Soviet domination in Eastern Europe was triggered by the renunciation of the Brezhnev Doctrine, sparking a wave of demonstrations and the rise of nationalism. The Brezhnev Doctrine asserted the USSR’s right to intervene militarily in Warsaw Pact countries if communist rule was threatened.

By renouncing this doctrine, Gorbachev made it clear the USSR would no longer enforce communism in Eastern Europe through military force. This paved the way for the citizens to demand reform and express their nationalism.

Mass demonstrations took place across Eastern Europe in 1989, with the largest in East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland. Protesters called for free elections, freedom of speech, economic reforms, and independence from Soviet control.

As the fervor spread, communist governments started to crumble. The first to fall was the Berlin Wall in November 1989, removing the physical and symbolic barrier between East and West Germany. This catalyzed further protests and governmental reforms across the region.

In early 1990, competitive elections were held in East Germany leading to a center-right government. Czechoslovakia’s Communist Party surrendered its monopoly later that year. Hungary enacted reforms shifting to a multiparty system and market economy.

By the end of 1990, communist regimes had fallen in East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania. Over the next two years, free elections were held and Soviet troops finally withdrew. The tide of nationalism swept Eastern Europe as the nations transitioned to independence and democracy.

Critical Moments

Two critical moments marked the progression toward the collapse of the Soviet Union. First, Gorbachev made the pivotal decision not to intervene militarily as former Soviet satellite states gained independence. Unlike past Soviet leaders who had forcefully crushed uprisings, Gorbachev chose non-intervention. This decision allowed the Eastern Bloc countries to successfully transition to independence without Soviet military resistance.

Second, the failed August 1991 coup by Communist hardliners was another critical juncture. Conservative elements within the Communist Party and KGB attempted to seize power and undermine Gorbachev’s reforms. However, the coup rapidly fell apart due to public resistance and refusals to support it by key military units. The failure of the coup showed that conservative forces could no longer dictate the course of events. It marked a decisive turning point that accelerated negotiations on the transition of power. Within months, the Soviet republics would declare independence.

Soviet Collapse

The collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991 marked the end of the centralized political and economic system that had defined the USSR since its founding after the Russian Revolution.

On December 8, 1991, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus met and signed the Belavezha Accords declaring the Soviet Union dissolved and establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place.

This dissolution of the Soviet Union was the culmination of independence declarations by multiple Soviet republics throughout 1991. Lithuania was the first to declare independence in March, followed by Latvia, Estonia, Armenia, Georgia, and others over the following months. By December, 12 of the 15 Soviet republics had declared independence.

The formation of the CIS marked the end of the unified economic and political system under central control from Moscow that had characterized the Soviet Union. The republics were now independent states, marking a definitive end to the Soviet communist system and the Cold War era that had defined geopolitics over the previous decades.

Theories on End of Cold War

There are three main theories that have been put forth to explain the factors that led to the conclusion of the decades-long Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union:

Triumphalist Theory

The Triumphalist theory attributes the end of the Cold War primarily to the policies and leadership of U.S. President Ronald Reagan. According to this perspective, Reagan’s military buildup and aggressive stance against communism with the Reagan Doctrine forced the Soviet Union into economic turmoil. The Triumphalist view portrays Reagan as winning the war against communism.

Liberal Theory

Alternatively, the Liberal theory credits the Cold War’s end to the power of ordinary people and dissidents peacefully demanding reforms and democratic rights within the communist Eastern Bloc. This grassroots pressure from workers, intellectuals, minority groups, and others seeking openness and change is seen as a driving force in the ultimate downfall of Soviet communism according to the Liberal perspective.

Great Man Theory

Finally, the Great Man theory focuses on the pivotal leadership and cooperation between Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. This view emphasizes the role that these prominent leaders played in jointly realizing the unnecessary and futile nature of continuing the Cold War. Their willingness to negotiate arms reductions and reforms is credited with bringing a peaceful end to the conflict.