Détente of the 1970-1990

Stalin’s Death and Destalinization

In 1953, the death of Joseph Stalin marked a major turning point in the history of the Soviet Union. Stalin had ruled the USSR with an iron fist for nearly three decades, overseeing rapid industrialization and collectivization while also unleashing a reign of terror that killed millions. His death left a huge power vacuum in the Kremlin.

After a brief power struggle, Nikita Khrushchev emerged as Stalin’s successor. Once in power, Khrushchev initiated a process that became known as “destalinization.” He denounced Stalin’s cult of personality and condemned the brutal purges, labor camps, and other crimes that had occurred under Stalin’s rule. Khrushchev gave his famous “Secret Speech” in 1956, openly criticizing Stalin’s “violations of Leninist norms of legality.”

Destalinization involved systematically dismantling Stalin’s legacy. Monuments to Stalin were torn down across the USSR. Cities like Stalingrad and Stalino had their names changed. Destalinization also led to the mass release of Gulag prisoners and the loosening of restrictions on free speech and artistic expression. Many figures who had been purged under Stalin were posthumously rehabilitated.

However, Khrushchev’s destalinization was incomplete. The Soviet system remained authoritarian, though substantially less murderous. But by attacking Stalin’s record, Khrushchev had opened the door for future reformers who would eventually take apart the entire communist system built under Stalin’s rule.

Hungary and Czechoslovakia

Hungary’s 1956 Uprising

In 1956, growing discontent in Hungary over Soviet control erupted in a nationwide revolt. On October 23, a student demonstration in Budapest in support of reforms and greater autonomy from Moscow quickly escalated. Protesters took to the streets, toppling the statue of Stalin. Calls rang out for Hungary’s withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact.

This spontaneous uprising caught Soviet leaders off guard. Initially, the new Hungarian leader Imre Nagy appeared open to compromise and negotiations. However, the situation spiraled out of control, with Hungary formally declaring neutrality and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact on November 1.

Seeing events in Hungary as a challenge to Soviet authority, Khrushchev ordered tanks and troops to crush the revolution. Despite brave resistance, the Soviets overwhelmed Hungarian forces, retaking Budapest by November 10. Thousands were killed in the conflict, and Nagy was arrested and later executed.

The suppression showed the limits of the post-Stalin thaw. Minor liberalization would be tolerated, but overt defiance of Soviet dominion met swift and brutal repression. For Hungarians, their bold bid for independence was tragically crushed under the treads of Soviet tanks.

The Prague Spring

In 1968, the new leader of Czechoslovakia, Alexander Dubček, initiated a period of political liberalization known as the Prague Spring. Freedom of speech, press, and travel were expanded. Moves were made to decentralize the economy and allow multiparty participation. Dubček stated this “socialism with a human face” would remain faithful to the Warsaw Pact.

Alarmed by growing democratization, Soviet leaders feared Czechoslovakia could leave their orbit. As liberal reforms gained momentum, Moscow readied plans for military intervention. On August 20, Warsaw Pact forces invaded Czechoslovakia with over 200,000 troops, swiftly occupying the country.

The Prague Spring ended abruptly as Czechoslovakia was forced back into line. Dubček and his reforms were swept away as repression and censorship returned. However, the seeds of dissent remained, gestating until flowering in the Velvet Revolution twenty years later. The Prague Spring became a symbol of freedom crushed under communist authoritarianism. Its ideals would continue inspiring calls for liberty for decades to come.

Sino-Soviet Split

The once-strong alliance between the Soviet Union and China began to fracture in the 1950s and 1960s. The Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance between Stalin and Mao forged in the 1950s started giving way to tensions and conflicts.

Several factors contributed to the deterioration of relations between the two communist powers. Ideological differences emerged as the Chinese leadership under Mao Zedong charted its own interpretation of Marxism-Leninism, which deviated from the Soviet model. Economic and trade ties strained due to disagreements on industrialization.

Border conflicts escalated as both sides increased military presence along their shared frontier, which spanned thousands of miles. This culminated in military clashes along the Ussuri River in 1969, underscoring the heightened animosities and territorial disputes. Both sides claimed sovereignty over Zhenbao Island on the river border.

The Sino-Soviet split marked a significant geopolitical realignment during the Cold War era. It weakened communist solidarity and led China to take more confrontational stances. The strained relations resulted in over two decades of border tensions and limited cooperation between the two states along their common border until tensions thawed in the late 1980s.

Brinkmanship and Crises

The late 1950s and early 1960s were characterized by heightened tensions and brinkmanship between the United States and Soviet Union. Brinkmanship referred to the geopolitical strategy of pushing dangerous events to the brink of war with threats in order to force the opponent to back down.

The U-2 incident was one of the defining events of this era. On May 1, 1960, an American U-2 spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union during a reconnaissance mission. The U.S. initially tried to cover up the mission by claiming it was a weather research aircraft, but was forced to admit it was spying when the Soviets revealed they had captured the pilot, Francis Gary Powers. The U-2 incident derailed a planned Paris summit between Eisenhower and Khrushchev. It increased Cold War tensions and distrust between the superpowers.

The most perilous brinkmanship crisis of the Cold War was the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962. U.S. reconnaissance flights revealed Soviet nuclear missile installations under construction in Cuba. President Kennedy responded by imposing a naval blockade on Cuba and demanded the missiles be removed. For 13 days the world teetered on the brink of nuclear war as tensions escalated between Kennedy and Khrushchev. Finally the Soviets agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for a U.S. pledge not to invade Cuba. The crisis highlighted how close the Cold War came to turning hot and led directly to the installation of a Moscow-Washington hotline to manage future crises.

Arms Control Efforts

As Cold War tensions peaked, both the United States and Soviet Union recognized the dangers of unrestrained nuclear proliferation and the possibility of nuclear war through miscalculation. This led to efforts at arms control between the two superpowers in order to reduce these risks.

One of the first major arms control agreements was the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty signed in 1963. This treaty prohibited nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater, with the goal of slowing the development of newer and more powerful nuclear weapons. However, the treaty was limited in scope as underground nuclear testing was still permitted.

The effectiveness of the Partial Test Ban Treaty in actually curbing nuclear testing became a debated topic. Both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. continued underground nuclear testing after the treaty, particularly in remote locations like the Nevada desert and the Soviet nuclear test site in Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan. Underground tests were found to release nuclear fallout across regions and raised concerns about environmental and health impacts.

Fears of nuclear proliferation intensified in the 1960s as new nations like China and France developed and tested nuclear weapons. This threatened the delicate balance of deterrence between the U.S. and Soviet Union. In response, both sides raced to expand their nuclear arsenals and develop new weapons systems like anti-ballistic missiles and multiple warhead missiles.

The risks posed by uncontrolled nuclear stockpiles ultimately drove new efforts at arms reductions like the SALT I and SALT II negotiations in the 1970s. However, continuing distrust and military buildups on both sides showed the persistent challenges of arms control between the superpowers.

SALT I Negotiations

With tensions escalating in the late 1960s, the push for arms reduction found expression in the first round of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT). Under President Nixon, the United States pursued negotiations with the Soviet Union aimed at curbing the production and stockpiling of nuclear weapons. This marked a shift towards a focus on arms control to prevent further escalation of the arms race.

The negotiations resulted in the signing of the SALT I agreement in 1972, which placed limits on intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). The treaty froze the number of ICBM launchers for both the U.S. and Soviet Union at existing levels. It also limited SLBM launchers and modern ballistic missile submarines.

While hailed as an achievement in arms control, SALT I faced critique for its failure to restrict other nuclear weapons like long-range bombers and MIRV missiles. It also did not address warheads, allowing for the continued growth of nuclear stockpiles despite the limits on delivery systems. The focus remained on stabilizing, rather than reversing, the arms race. Nevertheless, SALT I marked a significant early step in arms reduction between Cold War superpowers.

SALT II Talks

The negotiations between President Jimmy Carter and Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev during the late 1970s aimed to establish ceilings on various types of nuclear delivery systems. Building on the previous SALT I agreement, the strategic arms limitations talks envisioned limiting intercontinental and submarine-launched ballistic missiles, while also proposing cuts to long-range bombers.

SALT II specifically sought to cap the number of multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs) allowed on each missile. MIRVs enabled a single missile to carry multiple warheads to hit separate targets, heightening the threat. Beyond missiles, SALT II also endeavored to establish limits on the overall number of strategic nuclear weapons possessed by both superpowers.

While significant progress was made during multiple rounds of talks, the prospects of concluding a comprehensive SALT II treaty dimmed after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979. The Carter administration refused to move forward with ratifying the agreement in light of this aggression. The breakdown of the negotiations marked a serious setback in superpower relations, contributing to increased tensions during the early 1980s.

Cooperation in Space

Amid the escalating geopolitical tensions of the Cold War, space exploration emerged as an unexpected area of cooperation between the two superpowers. Both the United States and Soviet Union pushed the boundaries of their space programs, resulting in pioneering milestones for humanity. Despite the rivalry on Earth, the shared mission of reaching the stars fostered a spirit of collaboration.

The potential for joint missions in space first arose in the early 1970s. With both nations having demonstrated prowess in space travel, the stage was set for an ambitious union of technology and expertise. After years of discussion, the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project finally came to fruition in July 1975. This historic nine-day mission saw the first docking between American and Soviet spacecrafts in orbit.

The Soyuz 19 capsule with two Soviet cosmonauts aboard rendezvoused and docked with the Apollo capsule containing three American astronauts. The crews conducted joint experiments, exchanged flags and gifts, and participated in cultural exchanges. After 44 hours together in space, the two crafts detached and returned to Earth.

This mission exemplified the ability of the two superpowers to work together towards the shared goal of space exploration, despite ongoing tensions back on Earth. It built trust and fostered personal connections between the astronauts and cosmonauts. The historic handshake in space came to symbolize a step towards cooperation amid Cold War hostilities.

While largely symbolic, the mission also provided valuable data on how future international space missions could be conducted. It paved the way for the later Shuttle-Mir program and International Space Station, which further strengthened space ties between Russia and the United States post-Cold War.

At the time, the Apollo-Soyuz mission provided a glimpse of what could be achieved if the two nations worked hand in hand. It highlighted the possibilities beyond geopolitical differences and set an important precedent for future collaboration in space exploration. The fruits of this early joint mission continue to be felt today in the spirit of partnership that still defines the International Space Station.

Second Cold War

The hopes of détente, aimed at avoiding global nuclear war and maintaining a balance between superpowers, faced a significant setback with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. This event led to the U.S. refusing to sign the SALT II treaty, escalating tensions globally.

The invasion of Afghanistan strained U.S.-Soviet relations, resulting in the U.S. boycotting the 1980 Olympics and Carter’s implementation of measures such as the Carter Doctrine. These actions marked the beginning of the Second Cold War, characterized by heightened global tensions.

With Ronald Reagan’s presidency in 1981, a departure from détente became evident. His refusal to continue talks, the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), and increased tensions marked a cooling down of the détente era.

Reagan’s presidency marked a departure from détente, with increased defense spending, economic pressure on the Soviets, and the introduction of the SDI program. This era set the stage for the final thaw of the Cold War.

Reagan Strategy

President Ronald Reagan’s approach marked a significant departure from the previous era of détente between the United States and Soviet Union. Upon taking office in 1981, Reagan made it clear he would not continue the policy of ongoing negotiations and compromise with the Soviets. Instead, his strategy involved negotiating from a position of overwhelming strength. This aggressive posture set the stage for increased tensions that defined the Second Cold War era.

Reagan believed the Soviet Union exploited détente in order to gain strategic advantages. He labeled the Soviet system an “evil empire” and argued for actively confronting the spread of communism worldwide. Reagan pursued a massive buildup of US military forces, aiming to pressure the Soviets into negotiations by engaging them in an unsustainable arms race. Major defense programs included the B-1 bomber, the MX missile, and expanded fleets for the Navy. He also initiated the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) program, which proposed developing a space-based anti-missile system dubbed “Star Wars.”

In addition to military pressure, Reagan looked to stress the Soviet economy through sanctions and by driving down oil prices. He restricted technology exports and prevented Soviet access to Western financial markets. The administration provided aid to irregular anti-communist forces in the developing world, a policy known as the Reagan Doctrine. This multi-pronged strategy of confronting the Soviets militarily, economically, and in the Third World marked a clear departure from previous efforts at reducing tensions between the two superpowers. The aggressive posture contributed to escalating an already dangerous nuclear standoff.