Basic Poilitical Concepts

Introduction to Politics

Politics refers to activities associated with governance and decision-making of groups of people. At its core, politics involves the use of power and authority to impact society.

The term “politics” originates from the Greek word “politika” which means “affairs of the cities”. It refers to the art or science of organizing and governing societies.

Politics involves the creation and operations of governments, political parties, organizations, legislations, policies and negotiations between varied interest groups. It is about how power is distributed and decisions are made in societies.

The purpose of politics is to address issues faced by societies and organize collective efforts towards shared goals that improve lives. It enables social coordination and decision-making to determine how limited resources are allocated, which programs are implemented and whose interests are served.

Politics is intricately linked to the possession of power, which is the ability to influence people and events. Power dynamics are central in political activities, which aim to create, distribute, exercise and constrain power in acceptable ways.

At its core, politics is about actualizing the ideals of fairness, justice, security and development in societies through governance, policy making and collective decision-making. It serves the purpose of organizing social life and navigating societies towards the greater good.

History and Origin of Political Science

Political science emerged as a distinct field of study in the 19th century, developing alongside other social sciences like sociology, anthropology, economics, and psychology. These new fields arose in response to the social and political changes brought about by the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution, and the rise of liberal democracy.

Several key thinkers helped establish political science as a modern academic discipline. Alexis de Tocqueville, often called the founder of political science, wrote extensively on democracy in America in the 1830s. Other influential early political scientists included John Stuart Mill, who explored ideas of representative government and utilitarianism in the mid-19th century.

German scholars also made major contributions to the new field of political science. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel developed a dialectical theory of the state, while Max Weber wrote on bureaucracy and authority. The German university model, emphasizing research and academic freedom, shaped political science methodology.

As political science developed into an established social science, it both influenced and was shaped by related disciplines. Insights from economics and sociology informed the study of political institutions and processes. Meanwhile, political science contributed theories on civic participation, voting behavior, and the role of the state.

By the early 20th century, political science was a thriving field at many universities, marked by an empirical, data-driven approach. Pioneering scholars like Harold Lasswell and Charles Merriam helped systematize the study of politics and define it as an independent discipline. Political science associations were also founded to promote the field’s growth.

While political science has ancient roots in philosophy, its origins as a modern social science date back just over 150 years. Its emergence was driven by political change and cross-fertilization with other developing social science disciplines in the 19th century. Political science continues evolving today, expanding its interdisciplinary scope while building on its core mission of studying politics and power.

Core Concepts

The state is the fundamental element of political science, characterized by territory, population, government, and sovereignty. The state exercises authority over its territory and the people residing within it through established institutions. These institutions include the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Through these governing bodies, the state makes and enforces laws, provides services, and regulates society. The relations between the state and its citizens involve the social contract where citizens accept state authority in return for order, security and the provision of public goods. The purpose of the state is to promote the public interest and common good of its people. However, the state also maintains a monopoly on the legitimate use of force to compel citizens to adhere to its laws. Therefore a tension exists between citizens wanting freedom from state intrusion, while the state aims to maintain order and stability through laws and enforcement. The ideal is for the state to strike the right balance between authority and liberty. Overall the state, its institutions and relations with citizens are key components of political science and the study of governance.

Power

Power is the ability to influence the actions of others. It is the essence of politics according to political scientists who view politics as the activities related to the pursuit and maintenance of power.

Definition

Power refers to the capacity to make others do what they otherwise would not have done. It involves overcoming obstacles and resistance to achieve desired outcomes. Power is exercised through various means like force, coercion, manipulation, persuasion, inducement, lobbying, and authority.

Types

There are different types and classifications of power:

• Hard power relies on military intervention, threats, and economic sanctions to exert control.
• Soft power depends on attraction and persuasion to get others to do what you want.
• Compulsory power forces people to do something against their will through threats or physical force.
• Institutional power operates through hierarchies, rules, and standard procedures of organizations.
• Structural power shapes the contexts in which others make decisions.

Sources

The sources of power include:

• Control of resources needed by others
• Ability to administer punishment or reward
• Charismatic appeal and interpersonal skills
• Formal authority from holding an office or position
• Control of decision-making processes
• Possession of information, knowledge and expertise

Pursuit and Maintenance of Power

The pursuit and maintenance of power are central goals in politics. Political actors seek to gain, retain and expand power through various strategies:

• Forming alliances and networks
• Controlling communication and managing public perception
• Offering incentives and patronage
• Appealing to identities and values
• Using rhetoric and framing issues effectively
• Developing a strong support base

Power dynamics aim to serve broader societal interests, even as competing groups struggle to advance their own agendas and priorities. The outcomes depend on the relative power of stakeholders.

Political Science

Political science is the study of politics or the process of governance. It explores how societies organize collective life in order to navigate towards the “good life.” The study of political science emerged in the 19th century, developing alongside other social science disciplines like sociology, anthropology, economics, and psychology. However, the practice and examination of political life has existed since ancient times, with roots in philosophy.

Political science examines the systems and institutions that allow societies to make collective decisions. This includes the study of governments, public policies, political processes, systems of power, and civic engagement. At its core, political science is concerned with how societies tackle issues of public concern and ensure the wellbeing of citizens through collective efforts.

Some key aspects studied within political science include:

• Political institutions - The structures and functions of governments, legislatures, courts, bureaucracies and more. This explores how these institutions operate and interact.
• Political behavior - How individuals and groups influence political processes and outcomes through voting, activism, law-making and more.
• Public policy - The development, enactment and analysis of government policies on issues like healthcare, education, transportation and more.
• Political theory - The history of political thought and ideologies that have shaped governance systems.
• Comparative politics - The analysis and comparison of political institutions, processes and policies across different countries.
• International relations - The interactions between nation states, inter-governmental organizations, non-state actors and more at the global level.

The study of political science provides insights into the issues societies grapple with and the solutions they develop through governance systems. It aims to shed light on the forces that shape collective decision-making. Political science scholarship also enables citizens to better understand public affairs, equipping them to participate actively in civic life. Overall, political science plays a vital role in building knowledge to improve governance, public policy and civic engagement.

Decision-Making

The decision-making process is central to politics. It involves collective decision-making and the formulation of public policies that affect society as a whole. Decisions are the outcomes of choosing among alternative options. Decision-making is a process that leads to reaching a decision. In the context of politics, decision-making relates to decisions that are collectively binding and involve determining the goals of society and the policies to achieve them.

Decision-making in politics is a collective process that aims to determine the public good. Political actors and institutions engage in decision-making on behalf of the people and make choices that shape society. This collective decision-making requires bridging different interests and values in society to arrive at mutually acceptable decisions.

At the core of political decision-making is the formulation of public policy. Public policy refers to the exercise of power by political actors or groups to choose goals and strategies to achieve those goals. It emphasizes that societies have shared objectives that require collective efforts and the establishment of binding plans, which are reflected in public policies implemented by authorities.

The policy formulation process involves identifying policy issues and problems, formulating policy proposals, analyzing policy alternatives, selecting policy options, implementing public policy, and evaluating policy outcomes. This complex process aims to address societal needs and demands through deliberate governmental action. The choices involved have distributional consequences on who gets what in society.

Effective policy making relies on considering facts, values, impacts, and politics. It requires evidence-based analysis to inform decisions. Values shape what goals are deemed proper for society. Understanding potential impacts allows anticipating policy consequences. Managing politics and building consensus enables collectively binding decisions that serve the public interest.

In summary, political decision-making and policy formulation are at the core of determining societal goals and how to achieve them. It is a complex process of collective choice-making that shapes the public good.

Public Policy

Public policy refers to the exercise of power by political actors or groups to choose goals and strategies to achieve those goals. It emphasizes that societies have shared objectives that require collective efforts and the establishment of binding plans, which are reflected in public policies implemented by authorities.

Public policy involves the exercise of power to determine the goals of society and formulate strategies to achieve them. It highlights that societies have common aims that necessitate joint initiatives. These communal purposes are embodied in public policies enacted and executed by the government.

The formulation of public policy is a complex process that analyzes societal problems, weighs alternative solutions, and selects the best course of action. It entails identifying issues, gathering information, assessing options, choosing policy instruments, and implementing decisions. The policy cycle includes issue emergence, agenda setting, policy formulation, adoption, implementation, and evaluation.

Some key aspects of the public policy process include:

• Defining the problem - What exactly is the problem or issue being addressed? This involves research and analysis.
• Setting goals and objectives - What does society hope to achieve through this policy? Goals provide direction.
• Identifying alternative solutions - What are the different options to address the problem? Their costs and benefits must be examined.
• Analyzing the alternatives - Which option best achieves the goals with the optimal tradeoff between costs and benefits?
• Selecting the preferred policy - The best alternative is formally chosen and adopted.
• Implementing the policy - The government enforces and administers the policy.
• Evaluating results - How effective was the policy? Did it achieve the desired outcomes?

Public policy is a complex sociopolitical process centered on the exercise of power to determine collective goals and the strategies to accomplish them through government action. It converts society’s needs into binding decisions that shape public life.

Distribution of Power

The distribution and allocation of power involves the division and allocation of values within society. Politics is the mechanism by which values are distributed and allocated. Values refer to the things that members of a society desire, which can include material goods, personal wellbeing, security, freedom, and equality.

Political power allows certain individuals or groups to influence how these values are divided and given out in a society. Those with more power are able to allocate values in a way that benefits themselves, even if it comes at the expense of other groups. This unequal distribution often leads to conflicts as disadvantaged groups will resist unfair allocations that deprive them of values they believe they deserve or need.

Groups and individuals without political power have little say in how values are distributed. They lack the ability to ensure they receive their fair share, or to rectify allocations they see as unjust. Even basic values like security, food, shelter, and healthcare may be lacking for those with minimal power. This imbalance underscores how vital the distribution of power is in determining quality of life.

Examining the relationship between political power, government policy, and the unequal distribution of values is crucial. Questions of who gets what, how much they get, and the fairness of allocations lie at the heart of politics. Political science analyzes how resources are divided and the conflicts that erupt when segments of society feel they are being denied values rightfully owed to them. Only by studying the connections between power and inequality can effective public policies be created that balance the distribution of values across all groups within a society.

Aspects of Political Science

Political science encompasses various aspects that shape the field:

Political Theory

Political theory involves the study of systematic and generalized political ideas and phenomena. It examines the history of political thought and the development of political concepts and ideologies over time. Key areas of focus include political philosophy, political culture, and political consciousness. Political theorists analyze foundational texts, ideas, and thinkers that have influenced the evolution of politics.

Political Institutions

The study of political institutions examines the structures and processes of government and politics. This includes the constitution, the functions and powers of government branches, the role of bureaucracies, and the socio-economic impacts of political institutions. Scholars analyze how institutions emerge and evolve, their functions, dysfunctions, and how they distribute power.

Political Parties and Groups

This area explores political parties, interest groups, social movements, and civil society organizations. It looks at how these groups form, recruit members, mobilize resources, influence policymaking, and impact political outcomes. The dynamics between parties and groups is also examined, including cooperation, conflict, and competition for power.

Public Opinion

Public opinion is the collection of views of ordinary citizens regarding politics, policy, and politicians. Scholars study how opinions form, change, and the role they play in politics. This relies heavily on concepts from psychology and sociology. Public opinion polling and surveys are important tools for measuring opinions.

International Relations

International relations examines politics at the global level, including relations between countries, role of international organizations, global governance, and transnational issues. Key focuses include foreign policymaking, international law and norms, conflict and cooperation between countries, and comparative politics.

Role of Government

Government is the organization that makes, enforces, and implements political decisions for a society. It plays a central role in politics through its core functions:

• Rule-making: Governments make rules in the form of laws, policies, regulations, and programs that are binding on members of society. The legislature enacts bills that reflect the goals and values of society. These become enforceable laws. Governments also make rules through executive orders, policies, and regulations.

• Rule execution: Once rules are made, the executive branch implements them by building institutions and processes. It delivers services, enforces laws and regulations, and runs governmental programs. The bureaucracy and civil service carry out day-to-day governance.

• Rule adjudication: The judiciary interprets and applies the law by resolving disputes and determining if rules are broken. It ensures that the rule-making and rule execution branches stay within their authority. An independent judiciary upholds the rule of law.

• Communication with citizens: Governments communicate with citizens to inform them of rules, policies, rights, and responsibilities. They also aim to get citizen inputs into the policymaking process through mechanisms like voting, public hearings, and petitions. An informed citizenry is essential for a thriving democracy.

The functions of government directly impact the lives of citizens. By studying how governments fulfill these core responsibilities, political science develops insights into the problems and prospects of societies. Understanding the role of government provides citizens the knowledge to participate effectively in civic life and shape public policies for the common good.